Khirthar National Park
Baseline Environmental Study

Results

Outline of results

The archaeological evidence of human occupation in the park uncovered by this survey takes many different forms. Archaeological sites may consist of large habitation areas occupied for hundreds, even thousands of years, or they may comprise only a handful of stone tool flakes, a scatter of ceramic sherds, or a temporary structure utilised and abandoned by nomadic exploiters of the region’s resources. The archaeological remains uncovered in the Khirthar National Park during this survey take many forms and represent remains of both habitation sites and activity areas. As was discussed in the section above, the nature of this type of survey biases results in favour of more recent remains over older materials, and this is reflected in the large number of cemetery sites recorded (34 sites out of a total of 78). It is most likely that these cemeteries all date within the last 500 years. Remains of older sites were recorded too, however, and these take distinctively different forms. The earliest stone tool scatters and the later village type sites are especially interesting for the light that they shed on the changing nature of occupation and resource utilisation in this harsh environment.

Prehistoric sites

The earliest sites recorded by the survey team are represented both by scatters of stone tools and by debris from the manufacture of such tools, including flakes and cores of the locally available brown chert. The tool types conform in general to two categories of implements. The most numerous are informal tools, which are found on all sites with lithic remains. These tools are simply roughly flaked chips from larger chert pieces which show signs of expedient use through wear along one or more edges. Less numerous, but much finer, are the formal tools found on many but not all of the prehistoric sites. Such formal tools are nearly always in the form of very finely fashioned parallel-sided blades (Fig. 7.2) both large and small, small triangular blades and, on some sites, numerous microliths. Examples of these early sites are sites 12, 30, 40, 41 and 53.

Other stone resources were also utilised on some sites in the form of grindstones and whetstones fashioned from sandstone or limestone (sites 4, 13 and 69). There was little, if any evidence for the use of any other kind of hard stone for artefacts or, in later periods, for building purposes. Surface survey did not reveal any evidence for the importation or exchange of lithic resources from other areas. No sites revealed flint or obsidian flakes, although if these were rare and/or precious imported items they would be unlikely to be casually discarded, or if discarded, to remain on the surface for long. Little but lithics were evident at the earliest prehistoric sites. On some sites (such as site 30) there were also remains of rectilinear stone-built walls and some ceramic sherds, but it seems likely that these post-date the main period of use of the site which was almost certainly aceramic. Many later sites, including Islamic graveyards, also revealed evidence of lithics working areas (e.g. sites 40 and 41), but most likely the two uses of the sites were not only not contemporary, but probably occurred several thousand years apart.

Multi-period sites

Multi-period settlement sites, which seem first to appear in the Early Bronze Age, are often located on top of natural hills. Most still reveal traces of stone-built, rectilinear walls, with large amounts of ceramic sherds 1 , including painted and incised pieces, and artefacts such as grinding stones, ivory beads and carved shell. The precise dating of the periods of occupation of these sites is difficult to determine without stratigraphic excavation, but observation of surface finds suggests that they begin at least in the third millennium BC and include the Amri/Kot Dijian and Harappan cultural periods. These local cultural affiliations correspond to the broad regional chronological period of the Bronze Age. Such sites would certainly repay further investigation and excavation. Very fine examples include the sites of Koh Tarash (site 4) (Fig. 7.3) and Taung Miri (site 13) (also recorded by Flam, 1996: 38). Probably (though not certainly) contemporaneous with these sites are the remains of hydraulic works or gabarbands found nearby, such as sites 5, 7, 10 (Fig. 7.4), 19, 22 and 64 (Leshnik, 1973; Harvey and Flam, 1993; Flam, 1999). Associated with the site of Taung Miri is an elaborate above-ground irrigation channel (site 14), constructed of limestone blocks and over one kilometre in length. Its dating is uncertain.

Historic period sites

The period following the decline of the Indus Valley (Harappan) culture is less well known and more difficult to identify clearly in the Khirthar area as in southern Pakistan generally. It is likely that sites of this period do remain in the park area, but that they are difficult or even impossible to observe from surface remains. The Islamic period, however, is well represented by numerous graveyards, some with very fine carved standing tombs built in the Chaukundi style. The Taung Valley and the area south and south east of Karchat, in particular, are home to large cemeteries of this type. Notable examples include sites 9, 11 (Fig. 7.5), 17 and 18.

At each of these graveyards are numerous roughly constructed field stone graves as well as the carved and decorated tombs. These field stone graves are found throughout the park, not always in association with the carved tombs. They appear to still be in use today, providing good evidence for the cultural continuity of occupation throughout the last 500 to 1000 years. Dating the field stone graves is almost impossible from surface remains, however there is good evidence that the Chaukundi style graves, which are no longer being constructed, date to between 100 and 400 years ago (A Perspective in History and Art from Ancient Times: Pakistan. 1969: 52). The lack of weathering on the relief work may indicate that they belong to the more recent end of this scale. The reuse of carved stone slabs from earlier Chaukundi style tombs in later, more roughly constructed graves suggests that the more elaborate tombs slightly predate the field stone ones. Another possibility is that the two styles are contemporary and were in use for a long period. They may then represent a social stratification based on caste, class, wealth or religious affiliation.

Remains of colonial period rest houses and mile-stones (sites 34, 45 (Fig. 7.6), 47 and 59) indicate yet another, more recent cultural incursion into this area, the latest in over five millennia of shifting human occupation and activity in this area.

Miscellaneous other sites

A number of other sites were recorded, including single graves (site 33), ruined buildings (sites 31, 35, 37, 43 and 48), sherd scatters (sites 2 and 52) and a single stone stele (site 65 (Fig. 7.7)) whose precise identity and dating could not always be determined. Most of the remains of structures, for example, would appear to be quite recent, yet their simple dry stone construction technique strongly resembles the buildings on sites more than 4000 years old. Limited ceramic remains associated with these structures (at least on the surface) preclude more accurate dating for the structures themselves.

Two other sites remain to be described, which round out the picture of a very long and complex history of human activity in the park. The first is a single rock art site (site 70 (Fig. 7.8)) east of the Hab dam which appears to be unique in the park, although it may have parallels with Kai caves in Dadu (Dr. M. R. Mughal, personal communication) and possibly other sites across the Hab river in Baluchistan. This site was a particularly exciting find, given that it is located in the area around Khar Centre in the south west of the park, an area in which no sites had previously been recorded. A dearth of associated artefacts or structures and a lack of parallels in the immediate vicinity make dating uncertain. Local tradition holds that the site is of significance to Hindus (probably because of the Muslim prohibition on making images), yet it seems most likely that the site is in fact prehistoric. It consists of a limestone rock overhang adjacent to a permanent or semi-permanent water course and partially covered by limestone deposits (stalactites). The paintings themselves are in red and black or brown pigment, and take several forms, including a representation of a human figure and a number of abstract symbols.

The other site which falls outside any typology of archaeological sites in this area is the very large fortress of Rani Kot in the north east of the National Park (sites 54 (Fig. 7.9), 55, 56, 57 and 58).

Rani Kot

The remains of the site of Rani Kot present something of an enigma to the archaeologist. In an excellent state of preservation, they constitute a massive example of defensive architecture, and have been described as belonging to: the Persian period (Iron Age, sixth to fifth centuries BC); Alexander the Great (Hellenistic, fourth century BC); Bactrian Greeks (second century BC); Scythians (first century BC); Parthians (first century AD); or Sassanians (third to fourth centuries AD) (Panhwar, nd: 5). The fort guards a pass in the mountains which may be part of a natural route leading from Thatta through the Khirthar range and on to Sehwan.

The walls of Rani Kot have a circumference of approximately 25km (Mittmann, 1991), although this is not a continuous length, but consists of sections of walls, interspersed with free standing round towers which guard high and inaccessible points around a natural gorge. The longest sections of wall occur at either end of the gorge, surrounding the strategically weakest points where the entrance gates are located.

Two free-standing forts associated with Rani Kot complete the defensive architecture. Shergar Kot, located on a rocky bluff high on the north side of the gorge, is free standing, but along the alignment of the outer walls, and continues the defence of the steep, northern cliffs. Ameri, or Meri Kot, down below in the gorge itself has more the feeling of a keep, or inner defensive structure. Its modern use as an army post confirms its suitability for such a role. The construction of both forts appears to be architecturally identical to that of Rani Kot and all three must be approximately contemporary.

Within the enclosed valley of the Rani Kot fort are several other features worthy of note. In particular, a second or inner defensive wall in a fair state of preservation can be seen running east-west along the modern road in to Meri Kot. This wall is simply constructed using a dry stone technique (without mortar), of uncut local field stones which are roughly uniform in size and colour. There is a strong possibility that this wall may predate the construction of the outer fortifications, as it would provide little protection against a force strong enough to breech the outer defences.

A further archaeological site within Rani Kot is the so-called Living Place (site 56). This site may well represent a prehistoric settlement, and would certainly repay further investigation and excavation. An early date, however, would not impact on the dating of the fort itself, as there is no stratigraphic connection between the living site and the defensive walls.

Rani Kot may well be the location of a long established fortification, however the extremely visually impressive remains which stand today almost certainly represent the works of the Talpur dynasty who ruled the area in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries (Hughes, 1876: 721). As Captain Delhoste, of the Bombay Army wrote in 1839: “Rani-ka-Kot was built by Mir Karam Ali Talpur and his brother, Mir Murad Ali, about A.D. 1812, cost 12,000,000 rupees, and has never been inhabited, in consequence of there being a scarcity of water in and near it.” (Hughes, 1876: 721). Radiocarbon dating of charcoal from the mortar of the standing walls confirms this comparatively recent date of construction (see Appendix 7.3). A comparable defensive structure, also built by the Talpur dynasty may be seen atop the ancient site of Amri, now known as Kot Diji, located some 20km north of Sann, or approximately 40km from Rani Kot itself.

Back to Main